Z =
(Obs - Avg)
SD
Z =
(Obs - EV)
SE
Z =
(Obs - EV)
SE
Z =
(Obs1 - Obs2) - 0
SD12
n1
+
SD22
n2
Z =
(Obs1 - Obs2) - 0
SD12
n1
+
SD22
n2
t =
(Obs - EV)
SE Plus
t =
(Obs - EV)
SE Plus
t =
(Obs - EV)
SE Plus
χ2 =
(Obs - Exp)2
Exp